Application essay prompts: 2020

Wednesday, August 26, 2020

A Case of Corporate Ethical Failure, and Discuss Where Blame Might Be Essay

A Case of Corporate Ethical Failure, and Discuss Where Blame Might Be Assigned - Essay Example As indicated by the examination discoveries, in a domain where a worker does what the person in question needs, there will in general be the moral disappointment in the authority. These disappointments frequently influence the profitability of an association in light of the fact that there is absence of clear course on how things ought to be done in the association. Associations need to build up a moral code that controls the practices of representatives including the top administration. Be that as it may, where such the moral set of accepted rules is disregarded by the laborers, at that point an association is presented to various issues including moral authority disappointments. Moral disappointments in any association result from what individuals do at the work environment. What's more, moral disappointments are made because of the practices and imagining that is bolstered by the association when all is said in done. The individual practices that may cause moral disappointments in corporate overlooking limits, absence of restraint, the privilege see, personal responsibility, lacking good compass and group following. Then again, association culture that can prompt moral disappointments incorporate absence of lucidity with respect to moral direct in the association, absence of compelling pioneers to go about as good examples, absence of responsibility, moving fault and there is no presentation reconciliation and things are done inaccurately in the association. A previous chief of the Siemens affirmed in regards to dishonest practice in the organization that included slicing assets and pay off which added up to corporate defilement. The director affirmed on his job in the pay off outrage that was first uncovered by German investigators in 2006. This defilement outrage has discolored the name of the organization bringing about two top officials losing their positions. Also, the rest of the officials despite everything confronted fines and arraignments that added up to billions of euros in view of the corporate debasement.

Saturday, August 22, 2020

The Basics of the National Stock Exchange Products Research Paper

The Basics of the National Stock Exchange Products - Research Paper Example The NSE, India is the completely modernized, internet exchanging framework utilized in the WDM section of the Exchange has changed the method of exchanging the Indian protections advertise. The framework has helped speed up, along these lines sparing time; it has additionally figured out how to consolidate the basic part of security in its working. The individuals are associated from their particular workplaces at various areas to the principle framework at the NSE premises through a fast, proficient satellite broadcast communications arrange. The exchanging framework is a request driven, mechanized request coordinating framework, which doesn't uncover the personality of gatherings to a request or an exchange. This helps orders whether huge or little to be put without the individuals being burdened by exposure of their character. Requests are coordinated consequently by the PC keeping the framework straightforward, target and reasonable. Where a request doesn't discover a match it st ays in the framework and is shown to the entire market, till a new request which matches, comes in or the previous request is dropped or altered. The exchanging framework gives enormous adaptability to the clients as far as the kind of requests that can be set on the framework. A few time-related, value related or volume-related conditions can without much of a stretch be submitted on a request. The exchanging framework additionally gives total online market data through different request offices. Nitty gritty data on the absolute request profundity in a security, the best purchases and sells accessible in the market, the amount exchanged that security, the high, the low and last exchanged costs are accessible through the different market screens at all purposes of time.

Friday, August 21, 2020

Strategies for Increasing Your Customers Wallet Share

Strategies for Increasing Your Customerâ€™s Wallet Share © Shutterstock.com | faithieIn this article, we will explore the wallet share of customers and strategies for increasing its wallet share. In this article, we shall further try to understand 1) what is wallet share, 2) what is wallet allocation rule and continue 3) assessing customerâ€™s wallet share, 4) strategies for increasing customerâ€™s wallet share. So letâ€™s get started.WHAT IS WALLET SHARE?Wallet share or Share-of-wallet (SOW) is a marketing method or survey tactic that is used in performance management and is helpful in letting marketers and managers understand the amount of business from a certain customer or customers. It can also be understood as the percentage or share of the wallet or expenses of a customer for a certain product that goes in the direction of a business company or seller. Every firm in the same industry or different industries does its best to get the maximum wallet share of customers by following several marketing and sales tactics.The concept of wal let share is mostly used in the banking and finance industries and increasing the SOW influence positively increasing the lifetime value of a customer. As an effective example, wallet share can be understood as the number of times a particular gas retailerâ€™s customer gets his carâ€™s tank filled up in a particular period of time at the retailerâ€™s pump divided by the total number of refuels in that period.In many cases, increasing wallet share is considered simpler than increasing market share. Some common strategies that are aimed at increasing the wallet share of a customer include increasing amount the customer spends each time, encouraging him/her to visit the store or website more often and trying to get customer retention and loyalty, etc. The process of wallet share is very beneficial for businesses as it helps them improve their performance and thereby leads to accumulation of more profit.Importance of Wallet ShareThese days, most companies are sitting on goldmines of dat a which is still not analyzed or assessed. Customers, if studied properly can provide huge chunks of information to companies about their place in the industry. By studying this information for several customers, companies can work towards improving their products and services. The concept of wallet share thus helps businesses work on their weaknesses to retain customers.According to a study, it is about 6 to 7 times less expensive to retain existing customers as compared to acquiring new ones. The concept of wallet share helps businesses focus on retaining those customers who show promising stats. Thus, it helps them save on spending on acquiring new ones.Also, a 5% increase in retaining customers can eventually result in 25-100% increase in profits. This means that if companies focus more on increasing their customerâ€™s wallet share, they can eventually retain more customers and thus earn more profit.Challenges in Measuring Customerâ€™s Wallet ShareLack of information about custo merâ€™s spendings: The first challenge that businesses face when measuring customerâ€™s wallet share is the lack of information about their spendings. The data present with most companies is only vague and rough, and this does not lead to an exact calculation of wallet share. It is based on an assumption that does not provide accurate results.Hidden factors: Calculating wallet share depends on a number of factors, most of which are hidden. Some examples of such factors include the customersâ€™ brand preference; his/her total budget, customerâ€™s perceptions, substitution within categories and competitive concentration. Due to this reason, companies cannot evaluate the percentage of customerâ€™s SOW. The important factors that shape the customerâ€™s wallet share are mostly absent and hence making the measurement is tough.Time dependence: Wallet share is a tactic or metric that is mostly dependent upon time. This means that the observations made on the customersâ€™ spending patterns a re within a short window of time. Outside this window, the customer may change patterns, change preferences, etc. and this thus leads to a wrong calculation altogether. By lengthening the time window, better observations can be made but doing this in itself is very challenging and demanding for businesses.By refining measurement and overcoming these challenges, even a slight bit can greatly improve the calculations and produce a more accurate result. The time estimation too must be done right.[cp_modal id=cp_id_75506] [/cp_modal]WHAT IS WALLET ALLOCATION RULE?Wallet Allocation Rule is a term used to refer to the rank the consumers or customers assign to a brand in comparison to other brands and its link to the wallet share of the customer. This rule is a formula that helps to calculate wallet share based on the rank the customers give to a company in comparison to others. This is a very useful concept and formula since from industry to industry and from company to company; the relation between wallet share and a companyâ€™s wallet allocation rule is very consistent. What is special about wallet allocation rule is the fact that it considers two major things-whether a company is the consumerâ€™s first or second choice and the number of companies or brands the consumer uses. These are the two things on the basis of which the exact share of wallet figure can be calculated.Hereâ€™s the formula that we call the Wallet Allocation Rule: Three Truths of Wallet Allocation RuleOne of the most significant truths about wallet allocation rule is that it is better to be the number one brand and is more rewarding than being the number two brand. What happens is that by being the number one brand in a customerâ€™s mind, a company can easily calculate and apply the wallet allocation rule.Another truth that is related to this rule is that the more the number of competitors used in a particular category, the lower will be the scope or opportunity for each and everyone. The money or profit in this rule doesnâ€™t only go to the toppers, but everyone gets some share of the wallet of a customer. This means that for a particular brand, the more the number of brands, the less will be their share from the customerâ€™s profit.In the world of business, one concept that everyone must understand is that no two people in the same field can get gold medals. Parity hurts and tying up with another brand would not be as beneficial as being on your own. This is because when you club up with another brand, you are the average of the two places that you would have been if you werenâ€™t clubbed. For example, if in case your brand comes at the first place tied up with another brand, then you come at 1.5 and not 1. This significantly reduces the brand payout and also divides the earnings.ASSESSING CUSTOMERâ€™S WALLET SHAREThe following are some of the steps you can follow to assess and estimate your customerâ€™s wallet share:Step #1 Define Profile GroupsThe first step to follow to estimate your customerâ€™s wallet share is to define profile groups. This can be done by two ways-by using data obtained from analyzing a group of consumers and data obtained from profiles of customers. Many profile groups and divisions can be created by reading demographic data, as well as data of loyalty program members. By creating these groups, the customerâ€™s wallet share can be found out. Some of the characteristics on the basis of which prof ile groups of a particular kind can be created are age, nationality, marital status, and gender and product preference. Once a profile group has been created, the consumers can be put into the ones that match the most.Step #2 Understand Profile GroupsThe next step is to analyze and understand the profile groups as they have already been created. Now the main aim is to find out or determine what people in particular profile groups purchase and the amount they are willing to spend on these purchases.The main aim of this kind of an analysis is that it helps to know the amount that a person in the profile group should be spending if he/she gave his/her full wallet share to that brand. The analysis of this nature shows that there can be distinctions in the spending patterns of people within the same profile group. The revenues generated by these people can greatly vary.Step #3 Assess Individual Past SpendingNow, after the previous analysis, an estimate regarding each customerâ€™s walle t share can be made. By studying the past purchasing behavior of each consumer, a second and more validating analysis can easily be conducted. Customersâ€™ past spendings and purchasing are calculated and compared to their current, and this gives a better idea of their share of wallet. Now that two different versions of a particular customerâ€™s share of the wallet have been found out, the one with the higher potential can be used and assigned to him/her.Step #4 ActNow that a share of wallet figure has been assigned to each of the customers, it is time to persuade and convince the customers to consolidate their spendings. It becomes important to win over customers now and to do so; one more additional analysis can be done. This analysis helps to identify what is missing and incorporate it in the process further. To do this analysis, a company must assess a customer and find out what he/she is not buying in comparison to the average person in a profile group. By doing so, a change m ust be introduced to attract customers to the products they are not buying. This can be done by giving customer coupons or customers vouchers through the mail or at the checkout procedure. By giving customized coupons, the exact preferable item of the customer can be determined.STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING CUSTOMERâ€™S WALLET SHAREAs mentioned above, knowing and increasing the wallet share of a customer is very important for every business, no matter how challenging it is. By knowing the wallet share, a company not just fathoms its position in the market but also makes efforts to improve it. Just improving customerâ€™s loyalty is in fact not enough, improving retention, purchasing and amount of purchase are also very crucial. In spite of knowing the importance of this concept, many businesses still do not follow a well-developed plan to increase the wallet share of the customers. This could be either due to lack of knowledge of how to increase it or just due to casual outlook. The foll owing are some of the strategies and best practices to increase the wallet share of customers.1. Know your customersThe first way to increase the customerâ€™s wallet share is to know them and understand their spending or purchasing behavior. From the methods of analysis given above, one can determine which customer spends on what and how much do they spend. The steps of analysis will also be able to point out towards the products customers do not buy. Thus an estimate or note of which customers are profitable and which are not can be made. Just knowing what customers need or want is not enough, you must be able to promise them to deliver the same as well. Also, by knowing the products that customers donâ€™t need or are just not buying, you may be able to improve upon them and deliver them in an improved way.The method of wallet share cannot be independent of customers or consumers. It has to take into account each and every customer and his/her information. For this, thorough an alysis and observation need to be done. This may take time, special expertise and dedication but in the end, the results will be worth it.2. Track and increase customer satisfactionThe next strategy to follow in order to increase the customerâ€™s wallet share is to track and improve upon their satisfaction levels. If you do not know how satisfied your customers are with your products and services, how will you ever be able to improve upon yourself? Thus, it is first important to track their satisfaction level and then find ways to increase it.To track the customer satisfaction level, you can conduct satisfaction surveys or other types of surveys. These surveys are mostly in the form of written questionnaires which can be distributed physically or through email. Once you obtain results of the surveys, analyze them to find the weak and strong areas of your products and services. This will help you know how satisfied and content your customers are.Now, work on the weak areas to rai se the level of satisfaction of the customers. For example, if your customers are not satisfied with your after sales delivery, make efforts to improve upon it and so on. Also, maintain the areas that customers are most satisfied with and avoid being complacent.3. Engage your customersMaintaining a decent level of communication with your customers and keeping them engaged in your activities is also a good way to increase the wallet share, indirectly. The more the customers are involved with a brand, the more will they be inclined to buy from it as compared to others. There are many ways to engage the customers and keep them interested and curious as to what you are going to offer to them. The following are some ways you can follow to do so:Interact with customers on social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Google+, etc. and keep them updated about existing and upcoming products and services. Give them a chance to comment on what is offered by you and take into account their suggestions.Provide them with information and learning opportunities through graphic and interactive means such as images, visuals, and presentations. Create a website that is informative and caters to a large range of demographics.Create and increase the number of customer touch points. Make each of the touch points a positive experience for the customers so that they are encouraged to come back and buy from you over and over again. The more the number of positive touch points, the more will the brand awareness increase, and this has a direct relation to the wallet share.4. Improve your rankIt is very important to improve your rank in the mind of the customer in order to improve revenue earned and increase the wallet share of the customers in your favor. As we have found out earlier, being on the 1st rank is a lot better than being on the 2nd rank. Thus, even the slight difference in ranks can play a significant role in the wallet allocation rule and thereby the wallet sh are since both are correlated. Yes, it takes the time to climb into the first position but besides time, it takes efforts as well. Again, to improve your rank, you can follow several strategies and method such as:Raise brand awareness and brand image;Offer better quality yet reasonably priced products;Improve interaction and communication with customers;Offer better side-services like customer support, delivery and after sales, etc.;Focus on online marketing and physical marketing.

Strategies for Increasing Your Customers Wallet Share

Sunday, May 24, 2020

Vaccines And Its Effects On Children - 1339 Words

Nowadays, there are many vaccines invented by different scientists. Vaccines are so much in demand that even a simple flu has a certain vaccine. They have been invented to protect us. Its main function is to build our immune system and allow it to work against different kinds of bacteria. However instead of helping us fight against infection and certain diseases, vaccines can be the main cause of infection and diseases. Because of its live-attenuated organism, which means the pathogens were partially killed to lessen the harmful effects, it can still trigger an infection particularly with those who has a very weak immune system. Thus, vaccines should not be given to young infants because of their high risk of acquiring an infection that could eventually cause them long term effects. Rather, vaccinations should be delayed until the infant is a toddler (18 months to 3 years), and he has fully stabilized his immune system. Vaccines started since the ancient times. However, none was being recorded during that time. A practicing naturopath, osteopath and accupuncturist Leon Chaitow claim in his book Vaccination and Immunization that the first recorded vaccine was invented by Edward Jenner, who is the father of immunology. He developed the first vaccine, which is the smallpox vaccine, by exposing the person to the cowpox bacteria. Jenner discovered that the body could develop its own protection from the disease once it is exposed to the little amount of the microorganism. ThisShow MoreRelatedVaccines And Its Effects On Children1404 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 6 Pagesadverse reactions from the vaccines? Today, there are many vaccines, they are in such high demand that even a simple flu has a vaccine. Vaccines are created to protect us. The main function of vaccines it to build our immune system and fight against many bacterias. However, adverse reactions have become severe over the last couple of years, leaving some parents with no child. Therefore, parents shouldnÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t be punished for not vaccinating their children because, vaccines can cause many adverse reactionsRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1503 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 7 Pagesawful diseases, while that is the last thing on most of the worldÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s minds now. Vaccines have transformed human life. Parents should vaccinate their children because it saves lives, the vaccines are safe, and the risks of not vaccinating can harm children more than the vaccines themselves. Vaccines were created in 1796 by Edward Jenner, an English scientist. Edward Jenner formed the Royal Jennerian Institute when vaccines became more popular, but experienced some opposition towards it because of peopleRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1010 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 5 PagesVaccines Debates have risen lately whether or not to vaccinate children. Although vaccines potentially cause negative side effects, they are a common procedure for most families each year. Over time, several case studies have developed highlighting these side effects and raised concern about whether or not to accept vaccines. However, many people are not familiar with the typical vaccine and what it actually does once inside the body. Ã¢â‚¬Å"A vaccine is consisted of killed or weakened versions of aRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1325 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 6 Pages Vaccines are essential to a personÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s everyday life and well-being. A person who sneezed in their hand just touched the same door handle that everyone else does. Most people donÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t worry that they touched the same item or breathe the same air as someone else because the risk of them contracting a disease such as polio, or diphtheria are extremely low because most people are vaccinated against such diseases. Without the creation of vaccines the population of the world could be completely eliminatedRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1400 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 6 Pages Vaccines have changed the life of children with making some illnesses obsolete. The majority of parents are making sure that their children get vaccinated against potentially serious diseases. The parents that get their children vaccinated are trying to prevent the reoccurrence of these deadly illnesses. The problem arises when you have these children that have not been vaccinated around children not of age to get the vaccine for a particular disease. The older children get the disease and giveRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children1463 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 6 Pagesnot until 1796 when Edward Jenner revolutionized medical technology, with the first record of vaccines. Vaccines have diminished these diseases going from very common to little or none. Setting requirements on vaccines will not assist the reduction or eliminate them, but will also protect our youth from the wide-spread variety of deadly diseases. Multiple individuals do not truly understand what vaccines are and their true benefits and advantages of receiving them. When an individual gets ill,Read MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children914 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 4 PagesVaccines have saved millions of lives since they were first invented hundreds of years ago. But, they continue be a much debated topic among doctors and parents. Their benefits are often disputed because of so-called dangers related to their administration. Although vaccines are extremely effective, parents still have the power to decide if their children will receive them or not. As a result of parents choosing to not vaccinate their children, others may become ill and government spending increasesRead MoreVaccines And Its Effects On Children992 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 4 Pages Vaccines, while known as the painful occurrence at the physicians visits of your childhood, are responsible for eradicating many of the deathly diseases of the past. While no child likes being stuck wi th a needle, guaranteed immunity to certain life altering diseases is worth the slight prick. Recent movements regarding vaccines has shed a negative light on vaccines, and if they continue to grow attention, may bring back some of the diseases that were the initial issue. Vaccines are a very helpfulRead MoreThe Importance Of Vaccines And Its Effect On Children915 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 4 PagesThe Importance of Vaccines Having a baby utterly changes the perspective of the parent. They no longer are self- involved, but now have this new life they brought into the world. Nothing else can give a person the same joy that being a parent can bring. A parent would do anything for their child to protect them and give them the best life imaginable. A parent would never wish an illness upon their child and would do everything in their power to prevent their child from getting sick. With havingRead MoreChildhood Vaccines And Its Effects On Children1528 Words Ã‚ |Ã‚ 7 Pagesdiscussed and debated about whether or not people should vaccinate their children. Ã¢â‚¬Å"Childhood vaccines offer protection from serious or potentially fatal diseasesÃ¢â‚¬ (The Mayo Clinic, 2014)Ã¢â‚¬ . Vaccinations prevent diseases that can affect a child with symptoms of a cold or in some cases, the disease can be much more serious and can cause disability and death. The problem is that parents are choosing not to vaccinate their children against them. With choosing against vaccinating a child becoming a common

Thursday, May 14, 2020

The Treatment of Women Murderers Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 3149 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Critical essay Tags: Women Essay Did you like this example? Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Female defendants are processed within the criminal justice system in accordance with the crimes which they committed and the extent to which the commission of the act and its nature deviate from appropriate female behaviourÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Susan Edwards, Women on Trial (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984) p.213. Critically discuss the above statement, with particular reference to women who kill. It is abundantly clear that there is a contrast in the way the criminal justice system treats male and female defendants. Great importance is placed on the extent to which the female perpetrators act deviates from what is considered Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"appropriate female behaviour.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ The same cannot be said for men, when a male commits homicide there is no generic gendered stereotype that causes this crime to be surprising for the prosecution, or that provides the male with an exclusive list of qualities which he is presumed to p ossess. DonÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Treatment of Women Murderers Essay Example Pdf" essay for you Create order Considering women as Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œperpetrators of violence is a relatively rare phenomenon,Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [1] whereas when a man commits a crime one could suggest that the act is taken prima facie by the court and is not engulfed by a deeper context and a requirement for further explanation, as is the case with women, especially those who kill. It is due to this apparent need by the criminal justice system to delve further into the reasoning behind an act of homicide committed by a female, that I aim to explore the fact that the extent to which a female deviates from the gender appropriate stereotype affects the way she is processed within the criminal justice system. Recent statistics show that the number of Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œwomen in prison or on parole has increased threefold.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [2]It has been proposed that the Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œincrease in female offending seen in recent years is attributable to women adopting more masculine traits and behaviours.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [3]T here is an ample amount of evidence that masculinity Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œis a salient aspect of the criminal stereotype.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [4]However, I believe that the traditional female stereotype is a somewhat archaic notion as societal progression has engendered equality for women. Traditionally there was a clear archetype of what a woman should be and how she should act. Hilaire Barnett stated that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œwomen are the bearers of children, the nurturers of children, the homemakers and (unpaid) home keepers.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [5] One could question whether this is entirely relevant in todayÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s society; women are now more self sufficient and independent from men and many choose to pursue a career before having a family. Thus, I pose the idea that this equality should be carried through to the courtroom. Although the feminist movement has been successful in creating equal perceptions of women and men, it is clear that this equality has not fully transgressed into the court room. It is apparent that in order for a woman to benefit from a more lenient sentence they must adhere to gender appropriate behaviour. Sharon Hays stated that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œmotherhood is the ultimate fulfilment of a woman; it is a natural and necessary experience for all women.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [6] The fact that women are Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"supposedÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to have a caring and nurturing persona makes it all the more shocking within the criminal justice system when they commit a crime, especially murder. Whereas a man is sentenced based on the act itself, it appears that a woman is sentenced based on the extent to which her act deviates from what is deemed appropriate for a female, almost as if the womanÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s character and her conformity to appropriate feminine behaviour is on trial rather than her criminal actions. One could view it as rather arbitrary that women who fit the gendered ideal a treated more leniently than those who do not. This is promin ent in the cases of Ana Cardona and Maria Perez. These women did not fit the typical female stereotype and the prosecution highlighted this. During the sentencing of Maria Perez, the prosecution Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œattempted to defeminise her by highlighting her lesbian sexual orientation, portraying her dress and demeanour as manly.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [7] Ana Cardona was also perceived as having a more masculine appearance, it is clear that a womanÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s correspondence with feminine traits plays an important role in the prosecution and judgement of their guilt. The discrepancy in the way female defendants are processed within the criminal justice system as opposed to men can be observed by looking at the judges sentencing remarks in the case of R v Philpott, Mairead Philpott and Paul Moseley.[8] Upon reading the judgment of Michael Philpott in comparison with his wife Mairead Philpott it is clear that the judges have varying focuses whilst sentencing the male and female defe ndants. During the sentencing of Michael Philpott the judges focused on his Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œcallous selfishnessÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [9] of the crime itself and labelled him a Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œdisturbingly dangerous man.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [10] Whereas upon delivering the judgment to Mairead the judges concentrated on her role as a mother and how she could possibly put her children through the traumatic ordeal and how frightened the children must have been. Traditionally and stereotypically a women should be seen as a homemaker and loving and doting mother who places her children above anything, the prosecution placed emphasis on MaireadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s deviation from the gendered ideal by stating Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œyou put Michael Philpott above your children and as a result they have died.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [11]These sentencing remarks depict the stark difference in how men and women are assumed to act. Although the crimes were the same from the two defendants a further emphasis of guilt was place d on Mairead due to her apparent failure as a mother. As aforementioned, the extent to which a female defendant deviates from what is believed to be appropriate female behaviour plays an important role in the prosecution. This can be observed through scrutiny of legal discourse within the courtroom which undoubtedly Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œparticipates in this construction of sexual difference, producing fixed notions of the sexed body.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [12] It is Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œevident that the dialogue in the trial of Rose West maintained the distinction of male and female by problematising atypical female behaviour.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [13] Although West committed the crimes in conjunction with her husband, more focus was placed on her deviant sexuality throughout the hearing. Siobhan Weare depicts that the judge drew seemingly irrelevant attention to the fact that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œshe possessed a collection of dildos, rubber underwear and pornographic videosÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Weare states that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œthis collection of sex toys was depicted as solely belonging to Rose, despite the fact that it could have just as easily belonged to both her and her husband.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [14] This information had little legal relevance and the fact the judges placed emphasis on the matter shows that the prosecution wanted to accentuate her sexual depravity, in a way that they did not with Fred. The court drew attention to the ways Rose strayed from what is traditionally Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"acceptableÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ for a woman such as her sexual depravity and perversion, instead of purely focusing on the horrific crimes she executed. Even though an aim for sexual equality is at the forefront of society, this does not appear to be the case within the courtroom. From a feminist perspective, one could suggest that the defendants should have been tried in accordance with their crimes and without the further focus on RoseÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s sexual endeavours rather than FredÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢ â€ž ¢s purely due to her gender. Women who kill after suffering from domestic violence, namely battered women are of particular relevance when exploring how women are treated in the criminal justice system. It has been suggested that battered women are more readily allowed such a defence if they are seen to be adhering to the female stereotype and feminine traits of helplessness and coercion. Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS) was developed to Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œhelp establish the reasonableness of homicide by battered women.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [15]One could propose that women are not treated in accordance with the crimes they commit as if they meet the female stereotype; this gendered ideal could allow them a more lenient sentence. If a women is claiming to have killed due to suffering from domestic abuse , it would be entirely in her favour if she lives up to the traditional female stereotype in order to be granted the defence of BWS. Kathleen Ferraro stated that a woman possessing Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€ š ¬Ã…â€œassertiveness, strength and an outgoing personality are inconsistent with being a battered woman.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [16] After the Coroners and Justice Act 2009[17] women who use Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œevidence of BWS to support a plea of diminished responsibility will be labelled as mad.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [18] Equality within the court room could be seen as finally blooming due to Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"loss of controlÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ being implemented as a new partial defence to murder. Traditionally women were only seen as victims of crime and not perpetrators, thus were rarely sentenced in accordance with the crimes they committed as it was believed that the crime must be the result of a mental issue. However, now the idea exists that women can be perpetrators because they are victims. Those women who show no signs of being a victim within their crime are deemed to be extremely far from the female stereotype and thus are sentenced more harshly. If a woman presents themselves as sufficiently Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"batteredÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in court, they are conforming to the feminine ideal of helplessness and that of a victim. It seems rather unjust that in order for a woman to stand a higher chance of being granted the defence of BWS they must fit certain aesthetic and personality criteria. A woman may not naturally fit this ideal but still be a victim of domestic violence who was pushed into committing homicide. Ideally all crimes would be taken based on the actual act; unfortunately this is not case. This is a key difference in the extent to which men and women are sentenced in accordance to their crimes. The Infanticide Act 1938[19] was the result of Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œa policy decision to promote leniency for women who kill their own children.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [20]As predominant focus when sentencing women is the mental side of the crime, infanticide allows women a defence to the murder of a child due to lack of mental reasoning rather than focusing on the act she actually committed. If a man was to kill a child the same would not be an option. I fully appreciate that there exists a clinically diagnosed mental issue of puerperal psychosis where a woman kills a child. However, many women are able to claim this defence when it is not fully proven that they are suffering from any form of medically diagnosed psychosis. In giving the label of victim to female killers denies their agency Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œby portraying them as so profoundly victimised that is difficult to regard them as ever having engaged in an intentional act in their lives.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [21] Thus, one could argue that the focus on a womanÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mental capacity allows for them to be treated more leniently within the criminal justice system as opposed to men, who are punished in accordance with the crime they commit without any need to find further explanation. The defences of BWS and Infanticide annotate women as victims or Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"madÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. There is an overemphasis on the mental reasoning of women who commit crime. A woman is painted more as a victim of external influences that caused her to commit a crime rather than a Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"cold blooded killerÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. A further explanation as to the reasons women commit crimes is sought. Justice Minister Helen Grant stated that women within the prison populations are Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œmore likely to have been abused as children.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [22] Traditional criminological theory Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œhistorically tended to view women as driven to crime because of biological influences, whereas men were viewed as turning to crime due to economic or sociological forces.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [23] This insistence on delivering excuses for women who commit crimes and especially women who kill, so long as they meet the female stereotype denies women from being solely sentenced in accordance with the crime they committed in the same way that male perpetrators are. Females who commit homicide are Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œdescribed with respect to personality style and behaviour patterns.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [24]However, in the society in which we live one could suggest that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œmen and women are equally likely to suffer from complex mental issues.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [25]The Freudian notion that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œmen are rationalÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [26] and that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œwomen are driven by their biological constitutionsÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [27] is obviously outdated. Evidence suggests that legally this is not as willingly acknowledged as defences relating to mental issues are more associated with women. In the 21st century men and women are deemed more or less equally in mental and physical capabilities, a higher level of equality exists within the work place and within relationships than ever before. Thus, I believe that the criminal justice system is perhaps a little backward in its placement of women in respect to them committing crimes; one could propose that it is almost obsolet e to suggest that women cannot be the perpetrators of crime. Women are leaving the antiquated notion and definition of Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"femininityÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ behind, such as that of a Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"homemakerÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"nurturerÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. However, the way women are treated by the criminal justice system is discrepant to how the rest of society views them. It is an inarguable statistical truth that more men commit crimes than women, yet it is clear from the plethora of cases that support my argument that the court sentences women in an entirely different way than it does men, to the extent that they are not sentenced in accordance with the crime that was committed. However, are sentenced in accordance with how closely they match the traditional gendered stereotype. Helen Gavin stated that Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œwomen who kill multiple times are guilty not just of serial murder, but of being women who step outside of the persona that society creates for them.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [28]The current system benefits those women who fit this stereotypical female persona. For those women who do not meet the desired criteria or expectations are sentenced more harshly. This Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"double devianceÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of firstly deviating from the law in committing the crime and secondly deviating from the female stereotype, could end in double jeopardy for the defendant. Within the criminal justice system Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œaberrant femininity is constructed as evil.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [29]However, instead of focusing on the fact that a woman has not acted in the Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"correctÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ womanly way, the focus should be shifted to ensure women are sentenced in accordance with the crime they have committed, not punished more harshly or conversely more leniently simply because they are a women. As explored, gender plays an astoundingly critical role within the criminal justice system. Instead of being sentenced in accordance wit h the perpetrated crime, one agrees with latter half of Susan Edwards statement that a woman is sentenced in regards to the extent of which her crime deviates from Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œappropriate female behaviour.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [30] During the sentencing of women who do not fit the gender stereotype focus is placed on seemingly irrelevant matters of their identity and/or sexual orientation and how this deviates from what is considered acceptable of a woman. If the prosecution successfully portray a woman as Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œan Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"anti motherÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, as sexually predatory, or as domineering is unlikely to receive mercy, only the wrath of the criminal justice system.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [31] One suggests a lack of absurdity in proposing that women are just as capable of committing homicide as men. Throughout sentencing a womanÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mental state is discussed to a much higher extent than mens, describing women as Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"neuroticÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"madÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ for committing crimes is old-fashioned, the equality that women enjoy in todayÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s society should transpire into the courtroom, thus ensuring they are sentenced in accordance with their crimes. Word Count: 2,500 Bibliography: Demody Leonard E. (2002) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Convicted Survivors: the Imprisonment of Battered Women Who KillÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Net Library p.9 Winter J. (2002) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Truth Will Out? The Role of Judicial Advocacy and Gender in Verdict ConstructionÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Social and Legal Studies p. 358 Gavin H. (2013) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Evil or Insane? The Female Serial Killer and her Doubly Deviant FemininityÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ University of Huddersfield Repository p. 13 Belknapp J. (2006) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The invisible Woman: Gender Crime and JusticeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc p. 26 Cole K. E. (1968) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Women Who Kill, A Sociopsychological StudyÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Arch Gen Psychiatry p. 1 Weare S. (2013) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe MadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe BadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe VictimÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ : Gendered Constructions of Women Who Kill Within the Criminal Justice SystemÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Laws p. 338 Oggle R and Maier Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Katkin D. (1993) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A Rationale for Infanticide LawÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Criminal Law Review p. 903 Ward C, Flowe H and Humphries J. (2012) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Effects of Masculinity and Suspect Gender on Perceptions of GuiltÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Applied Cognitive Psychology p. 482 Barnett H. (1998) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Introduction to Feminist JurisprudenceÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Cavendish Publishing Limited p. 43 Chesney-Lind M and Pasko L J. (2004) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Female Offender: Girls, Women and CrimeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Sage Publications p. 139 Edwards S. (1984) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Women on TrialÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Manchester University Press p. 213 We bsites: Fogg A. (2013) Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Yes Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Reduce Prison Sentences But Not Just For WomenÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/26/prison-changes-women Date accessed 3rd January 2015 R v Philpott, Philpott and Moseley, Sentencing Remarks, https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/JCO/Documents/Judgments/r-v-philpott-philpott-and-mosley-sentencing-remarks.pdf Date accessed 2nd January 2015 [1] Siobhan Weare, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å" Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe MadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe BadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe VictimÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ : Gendered Constructions of Women Who Kill Within the Criminal Justice SystemÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) Laws 340 [2] Meda Chesney-Lind and Lisa J Pasko, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Female Offender: Girls, Women and CrimeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) Sage Publications 139 [3] Charlotte Ward, Heather Flowe and Joyce Humphries, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Effects of Masculinity and Suspect Gender on Perceptions of GuiltÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) Applied Cognitive Psychology 482 [4] ibid. [5] Hilaire Barnett, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Introduction to Feminist JurisprudenceÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1998)Cavendish Publishing Limited 43 [6] Sharon Hays 1996 [7] Charlotte Ward, Heather Flowe and Joyce Humphries, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Effects of Masculinity and Suspect Gender on Perceptions of GuiltÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) Applied Cognitive Psychology 482 [ 8] R v Philpott, Mairead Philpott and Paul Moseley [2013] EWHC 773 [9] R v Philpott, Mairead Philpott and Paul Moseley, Sentencing Remarks, https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/JCO/Documents/Judgments/r-v-philpott-philpott-and-mosley-sentencing-remarks.pdf accessed 2nd January 2015 [10] ibid. [11] ibid. [12] Jo Winter, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Truth Will Out? The Role of Judicial Advocacy and Gender in Verdict ConstructionÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2002) Social and Legal Studies 354 [13]ibid at 355 [14] Siobhan Weare, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe MadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe BadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe VictimÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ : Gendered Constructions of Women Who Kill Within the Criminal Justice SystemÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) Laws 348 [15] ibid at 338 [16] ibid. [17] Coroners and Justice Act 2009 [18] Siobhan Weare, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å" Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe MadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe BadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œTh e VictimÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ : Gendered Constructions of Women Who Kill Within the Criminal Justice SystemÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) Laws 339 [19] Infanticide Act 1938 [20] Robbin Oggle and Daniel Maier Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Katkin, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A Rationale for Infanticide LawÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1993) Criminal Law Review 903 [21] Siobhan Weare, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å" Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe MadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe BadÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThe VictimÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ : Gendered Constructions of Women Who Kill Within the Criminal Justice SystemÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) Laws 338 [22]Ally Fogg, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Yes Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Reduce Prison Sentencing, But Not Just For WomenÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/26/prison-changes-women accessed 3rd January 2015 [23] Joanne Belknapp, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The invisible Woman: Gender Crime and JusticeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2006) Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc 26 [24] K.E. Cole, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Women Who Kill, A Sociopsychological StudyÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1968) Arch Gen Psychiatry 1 [25] Ally Fogg, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Yes Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Reduce Prison Sentencing, But Not Just For WomenÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/26/prison-changes-women accessed 3rd January 2015 [26] Joanne Belknapp, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The invisible Woman: Gender Crime and JusticeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2006) Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc 26 [27] ibid. [28] Helen Gavin, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Evil or Insane? The Female Serial Killer and her Doubly Deviant FemininityÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) University of Huddersfield Repository 13 [29] ibid. [30] Susan Edwards, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Women on TrialÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1984) Manchester University Press 213 [31] Jo Winter, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Truth Will Out? The Role of Judicial Advocacy and Gender in Verdict ConstructionÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2002) Social and Legal Studies 358

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

Humn410 Final Exam Essay - 2059 Words

Top of Form |1. (TCO 1, 2) Analyze how nationalism and militarism contributed to the outbreak of World War I. | | | |Use historical examples to support your answer. | | | |Of the various causes of World War I, which do you think was the most important and why? (Points: 40) | |Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more contentÃ¢â‚¬ ¦(TCO 10) Match the terms in Column I with the descriptions in Column II. (Points: 18) | |[pic] | |Matching: | |Answer | | | |Potential Matches: | | | |[pic]: liberation theology | | | |1: populist president of Argentina during the 1940s and

Tuesday, May 5, 2020

Is Mathematics Invented or Dis Essay Example For Students

Is Mathematics Invented or Dis Essay Mathematics is of key importance to most aspects of modern life. Due to the great diversity and nature of mathematics it is a subject that is hard to define. Over the years great mathematicians have given there own definitions of mathematics. In general we can define it as a group of related sciences, including algebra, geometry, and calculus, concerned with the study of number, quantity, shape and space and there interrelationships using a specialized notation. Maths has often been described as the language of science because it is often used by scientists to express new theories. Unlike science though, maths is based on a set of axioms and postulates and not on experimentation or observation. Axioms and postulates are statements that are assumed to be true without being proven. For example the whole is greater than the part. An axiom is a statement common to all sciences whereas a postulate is a statement peculiar to the particular science being studied. Other statements or theore ms must be logically implied by the set of postulates and axioms. The theorem is considered valid if it is consistent with itself and the mathematical system that it is a part and does not create any contradictions within the system. If something is mathimatically true it just means that it is valid. Mathematics can be divided into two main areas, Pure mathematics and Applied mathematics. Applied mathematicians concern themselves with maths that can be applied to the real world like engineering. To consider a theorem true it must work in the outside world. Pure mathematicians are concerned with abstract ideas and the logical process that is taken to prove these ideas. Absolute certainty of results in pure maths comes from developing theorems from axioms by logical analysis. There is disagreement between mathematicians over the relationship between maths and reality and whether mathematical objects are real. There are three different groups that have oposing ideas on the subject. One , the Platonist, says that mathematical objects are real and exist independent of our knowledge of them. So mathematicians discover mathematical theories and formulas. Formalists on the other hand argue that there are no mathematical objects and that mathematicians just create them. Constructivists disagree with both and say that genuine mathematics is only what can be obtained by a finite construction. The set of real numbers or any other infinite set cannot be obtained. We will write a custom essay on Is Mathematics Invented or Dis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now According to formalism mathematics consists of axiom postulates and formulas, but they are not about anything. When the formulas or theories are applied to the physical world then they acquire meaning and can either be true or false. But by itself as a purely mathematical formula it has no real meaning or truth value. To a formalist there is no real number system, except as we choose to create it by creating the appropriate axioms to describe it. The mathematician is free to change it for whatever reason but neither system will correspond better to reality than the other because there is no reality. A good example of this argument is the study of geometry. For years Euclidean geometry was thought to describe the world around us. This was until the 1830s when Bernhard Riemann and Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky with Janos Bolyai developed two new geometric systems. They did this by changing Euclids fifth postulate about parallel lines and then making all new deductions based on the new set of axioms. Both geometries were just as valid as Euclids and so would any other as long as it was consistent and did not lead to any contradiction within its set of axioms and postulates. It was now apparent that there were almost an infinite number of geometric systems. It was also unclear which geometry described the outside world. .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .postImageUrl , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:hover , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:visited , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:active { border:0!important; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:active , .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u09034673cb06ecf7e1ce35b22c13435d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Katyn and Vinnytsia EssayA formalists view towards pure maths is that it is just a meaningless game where mathematicians never know what they are talking about or what they are saying is true. In many ways this is true, but pure maths has also been shown to have practical applications. The ancient Greeks for example described the ellipse and the parabola. Galileo found the parabola to be the path of projectiles and Kepler used the ellipse to describe planetary orbits. Boolean algebra was used in computers and circuitry and in his theory of relativity Einstein used an obscure branch of mathematics called tensor calculus, developed five years earlier by G.Ricci and Tulio Lev i-Civita. How is it that theories developed with no consideration of any practical purposes can be found years later to be perfect in describing a new scientific theory or application? To a Platonist the only explanation for this is that all maths is empirical and has and always will exist whether we discover it or not, the mathematician cannot invent anything because it is all there. From this point of view all branches of maths can be considered applied maths we just havent discovered yet how it applies to the real world. Whether mathematics is invented or discovered is an impossible question to answer because it is impossible to prove or disprove and it will probably remain so no matter how far our mathematical knowledge advances in the future. There will always be maths that can be applied to the physical world and maths that seems to be just made up by someone. Though there is evidence to support both the Formalists and the Platonists neither can be absolutely sure the other is wrong. Maybe both are right. Does it really matter? Whether maths is real or just a product of our imaginations it will continue to be developed and applied to different areas of our lives and maybe one day we will come close to answering this question.

Sunday, April 5, 2020

Martin Brian Mulroney Essays - Brian Mulroney,

Martin Brian Mulroney Martin Brian Mulroney became the 18th prime minister of Canada on September 17, 1984, after his party, the Progressive Conservatives won the greatest parliamentary victory ever in Canadian history. Mulroney was born in 1939, the son of an electrician, in the paper mill town of Baie Comeau, Quebec. Mulroney attended a very strict military type all boys' school until the age of 16 when he entered Saint Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. There he earned an honor degree in political science. While at St. FX he was active in on campus politics. During his first year he became a member of the youth wing of the P.C. Party of Nova Scotia. Before he graduated he was to become the Prime Minister of St. FX's famous mock Parliament, a position that had been held for years by Liberal students. After graduation he studied law at Dalhousie in Halifax and later at Laval University in Quebec, from which he graduated in 1962. It was during these years in Quebec that Mulroney became known as the life of the party. He frequented most Montreal nightclubs and was quite a lady's man. Mulroney also became a slightly more than social drinker. After becoming a lawyer in 1965 he joined a prestigious law firm known as Cate Ogilvy, later becoming a partner in that firm. In May 1973 at the age of 34 he married a beautiful 20 year old Mila Pivnicki, daughter of Yugoslav immigrants. The Mulroneys would go on to have three children. Mulroney worked energetically for the Progressive Conservative Party as a young lawyer, serving on the party's finance and policy committees and on its 1968 and 1972 campaign committees. He first came into the public eye in 1974 as a member of the Cliche Royal Commission, which investigated corruption and violence in the Quebec construction industry. Also involved in this commission was Mulroney's friend and future Quebec premier Lucien Bouchard. Although Mulroney had not yet held public office, he ran for election as Conservative leader at the party's 1976 national convention. He waged a vigorous and expensive campaign but lost to Joe Clark after being critisized as the Cadillac Cantidate for spending so much money. Following this failure, Mulroney became very depressed and bitter. This was a very bleak time in his life. His drinking and his tongue often got him in trouble. During this period he would often attend social events, get very drunk, and make an ass of himself. He took the Leadership loss very personally and it almost ruined him. A few years after taking the job of President of the Iron Ore Company of Canada in 1977 he decided that he would clean himself up. He went to special Alcoholics Anonomous meetings for famous people who didn't want the world to know they had a problem. After this time in his life he almost never had a drink and never repeated his drunken outbursts at any social functions. During his years as a corporate executive, Mulroney remained active in politics, taking every occasion to increase his visibility among the public and to gain support from within the party for his upcoming leadership bid. In 1982, because of an economic depression, the Iron Ore Company of Canada was forced to close one of its mining and milling towns in Quebec. At first this appeared to be a disastrous political setback for Mulroney. However, he turned it into a public relations triumph by making the people of the town in question believe that there were other alternatives when there were none and by negotiating generous settlements for the workers who had lost their jobs. This earned him respect and won him general support and his reputation as an expert labor lawyer and industrial relations specialist was enhanced. After the election most of his promises were shown to be false hopes but by that time the people had already decided. In mid-1983 Clark's leadership of the Progressive Conservative Party was being questioned, forcing him to call a national party convention and leadership review. Brian Mulroney was again a candidate, and he campaigned more shrewdly than he had done seven years before. He actually had been paying people to ruin Clarks chances

Sunday, March 8, 2020

Reagan essays

Reagan essays Ronald Reagan: Its Time for a Change When the 1980 presidential election rolled around Americans were looking for a new leader and someone that could get the United States out of its slump. The previous Presidents did nothing but make Americans lose confidence in the position. Jimmy Carter didnt act as strong as a world leader should act. Gerald Ford wasnt a bad president but he didnt do much while he was in office. Nixon and Johnson were plagued by the conflict of the Vietnam War and the turbulent society in the United States. Americans needed an appealing President, someone who would lift their hopes; Ronald Reagan was that man. At the time the United States faced high inflation, high unemployment and high taxes. Reagan was determined to turn this around and return the United States to its past glory. Reagan planned to reduce the role of government and increase individual rights. He also wanted to reduce taxes and the American public was all for this. Finally, Reagan wanted to restore the pride, power and tradition the United States once had but was now lost. These plans, promises and other factors made Ronald Reagan a very appealing politician the United States. Ronald Reagan had a slightly different background then the men that came before him. Ronald Reagan won initial fame in Hollywood where he worked in films and was president of the Screen Actor Guild (Boller 259). He also appeared on television and in commercials. This experience in the media helped Reagan a lot as a President. He was able to speak clear and make people listen to his plans for the country. He wasnt afraid to tell the people what needed to be done in the country and these plans appealed to the public. Reagan was an experienced politician and had already worked in government. He spoke out publicly in the sixties for the Republicans and there conservative views. This is where he took the side that government ...

Friday, February 21, 2020

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 43

Case Study Example The current trends in the dog food category show that continued expansion of the industry is anticipated in the future, There are various ways in which dog food category can be segmented. For instance, it can be segmented into low price segment, mainstream segment, and the premium segment. The low price segment feature brands such private label, the mainstream segment feature brands such as Pedigree and Alpo while the premium feature brands such as Purina One and Iams. Of the three segments, the premium segment is believed to be of the highest quality followed by the mainstream segment and finally the low price segment. The price charged on a brand is largely dependent on the segment in which it belongs. Dog food brands from the premium segment are the most expensive among the three segments. Brand marketing has proven to be among the best business tactics in the dog food industry.Ã‚ InÃ‚ essence.Ã‚ Brand marketing gives a company competitive advantage over the competitors. The influencers of brand purchasing of dog food are the dog owners. Some dog owners favor certain dog food brands and, therefore, they cannot buy other brands. In addition, the purchasing power of the dog owners influences brand purchasing decisions. In essence, sometimes dog owners are obliged to purchase a particular brand by their financial status. However, the trend is changing since with time the dogs eating habit have proven to influence brand purchasing decision. Some people enjoy watching their dogs eat. In this regard, they would by a brand that the dog favors. In other words, dog ownersÃ‚ would buy the brand the dog enjoys to eat. Some dog owners have attested that their dogs only eat certain food brand. A recent study has shown that the levels of brand loyalty have grown high due to various factors. For instance, research has shown that quality affects consumersÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ loyalty to a particular brand. Brand designing and

Wednesday, February 5, 2020

Ulrich Zwingli - A Religious Reformer Research Paper

Ulrich Zwingli - A Religious Reformer - Research Paper Example Nor was it by the ancient Church of the Swiss, until convents turned missionaries into monks, and monks turned the gospel into fables, and these fables led the people to believe that the pope was the Vicar of Christ, and that Mary should be adored as the Virgin and as the guardian of the Church (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868, 12-20) It is by this lie, that Ulrich Zwingli stretched his dowel in the direction of reformation of the church. The flagrant corruption, and Ã¢â‚¬Å"the lie of celibacyÃ¢â‚¬ were a constant thorn in the belief that Ulrich held in his conviction to the true cause of Christ; But not without the controversy of expulsion and severing of the ties with Rome. In this period, and in the periods that had passed, there had been Turmoil in the church, of the celebrations and the Book of Christ. Many reformers of the time questioned the role of these celebrations and the controversy of them not being found in the Bible. The statement he makes in his works clearly indicates his feelings towards the papal conclave;That Christ is the only eternal high priest, wherefrom it follows that those who have called themselves high priests have opposed the honor and power of Christ, yea, cast it out. (Meyer 1912, 2007 , 2007) By no means did he shy away from controversy, but in his belief in Ã¢â‚¬ËœtruthÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ and his understanding of humanity, did he engage in writings of change, and politics, and distributed them commonly even in Rome, where his works were proscribed, the prelates still treasured his books, devoid of true acquaintance that he indeed authored those works they so loved. 1.1 WHO WAS HE? Ã¢â‚¬ËœGod has granted me,Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ said he, Ã¢â‚¬Ëœf rom my boyhood to devote myself to the acquirement of knowledge, both human and divine. ... I acknowledge myself to be a great sinner before God, though I have not lived an immoral life, and on no occasion has discipline been exercised upon me.Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868) Born in the Year 1484, in January at Wildhaus, Switzerland, Ulrich was named after his Ã¢â‚¬ËœAmmannÃ¢â‚¬â„¢1 Father, Ulrich the senior. His Uncle Bartholomew Zwingli also the Dean of Wesen, came and baptized him. Ulrich was born in a family of eight sons and one daughter. Ulrich was the third. As a young boy, living in the mountains, and had the chance to feel the presence of God in his surroundings. He would watch the animals and the people, and listen to tales from his grandmother, until at nine, from a suggestion by his Uncles, his father took him to Wesen, and laid him in the hands of his Uncle Bartholomew with the words; Ã¢â‚¬Å"You have put lofty ideas into Ulrich s head, and now I have brought him, so that you may try What he can doÃ¢â‚¬ (REV. WM. M. BLACKBURN 1868) In the spirit of the school of the times in Wesen, Bartholomew Zwingli, seeing that the education at the common schools was not good enough, contacted his friend the master of St. Theodore George Binzli, at Basle. Here, Ulrich grew faster in knowledge that he made new enemies in the older boys, at the age of thirteen, he was sent to Berne, where later after there was a trial by the monks of Dominica to convert the young bright mind, he was sent to Vienna In Austria, where he met two new friends that would help him grow in leaps and bounds. In such dedication, Ulrich Grew a devoted catholic, raised in the values and commissions of the church, and it can be said that he never really faced the world of corruption and sin in such a way that salvation would to him make a big impact than another reformer, born only a few weeks earlier, Mr. Martin Luther of the Lutheran reformation. There is no saying, that in his Ã¢â‚¬ Å"safetyÃ¢â‚¬ at Basel, Bern and Vienna, from where upon receiving his qualification in Arts, he joined the service of the Roman Catholic Church, Ulrich was far protected from facing the temptations of this world in so much that his tilt towards the Ã¢â‚¬ËœfemalesÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ was strong enough when he faced the sleaze. This was one of the conflict points that Ulrich had with the

Tuesday, January 28, 2020

The main premises and limitations of functionalism

The main premises and limitations of functionalism The theory I have chosen is functionalism, whose basis is the systemic nature of culture, or what might be most appropriately designated as a glue concept of culture. I am however, deeply aware that no theory explains everything and every theory has its limitations, reason why the grand theories all failed: calling for complementarity in the theoretical frameworks and methodological assumptions that informs our research. This fact explains the continuous growth of theory in anthropology from evolutionism with its unilineality to poststructuralist theories today. In what follows, I will explain and illustrate the main premises of functionalism, and highlight the limitations of the functionalist framework. Functionalism was one of the earliest anthropological theories. Its main theoretical postulate is an analogy of the human organism as a microcosm of society: parts as making up the whole, different individuals playing different roles and having different statuses, although one individual can have different statuses simultaneously. According to this metaphor, the various parts of the human body like the traits and institutions of a culture are interrelated and work together to ensure its proper functioning (see Barth, 1979:20-22). Following one of functionalisms precursors, Polish-born British anthropologist Malinowski, who is associated with bio-cultural/psychological functionalism, cultural institutions are meant to meet human instrumental needs: economics, social control, education, political organization among others. On the other hand, Radcliffe-Brown who developed the idea of social structure presents human society as based on networks of social relationship and that institution s maintain society as a system. The difference between Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown is that unlike the former who emphasizes the individual, the latter sees the individual as irrelevant'(Goldschmidt,1996:510) As a critique against evolutionism, diffusionism and historicism, functionalism wanted a shift away from speculative history and cultural survivals to ahistorical synchronic study of social institutions within bounded, functioning societies(Young,1991:445). The core idea of the functionalists was to look for the reality of events in their present day manifestations. This does not imply a wholesome rejection of history per se but rather, a rejection of what Harris (1968:524) calls pseudo-history. Methodologically speaking, the functionalists viewed society in systematic terms, parts as being dependent on one another so as to maintain social equilibrium, but they recognized the prospects for internal social conflicts and disequilibrium. The second methodological premise is that of intensive fieldwork through the traditional method of participant observation. It implies in this case, the search for functional relationships among customs and institutions as a useful mechanism of abstracting data. And thirdly, analysis was to be based on short time scale. As recent advances in anthropological and sociological theory suggests, culture is contestation and we need to write against the whole concept of culture so as to embrace the very dynamism of anthropological fieldwork due to the mobility of subjects owing to globalization. Gupta and Ferguson (1997:4) have rightly called for anthropology to embrace changing trends in contemporary world marked by people, objects and ideas rapidly shifting. These shifts; they argue have changed the notion of the field as a fixed territorial space and of people as immobile and dealt a serious blow to the traditional notion of community as bounded. This is quite evident when considering new tribes like refugees, migrants, displaced and nomadic communities. They note that culture is not bounded and therefore does not occupy designated spaces. They further note that such conception do not account for people inhabiting borderlands nor do they factor in cultural differences of people occupying the same geogra phical space. They further assert that post-coloniality and globalization have heralded the idea of hybrid cultures in which concepts like identity and solidarity are no longer based on proximity to marked spaces and contact zones and thus making the case for a radical re-thinking of anthropological models of analysis (Ibid). Following Appadurai, (1991; 191,196), the contemporary world structured by the overarching effects of globalization has become quite de-territorialized in ways that have altered the conception of locality and space. In the same light, Fox and Gingrich note that of late, the notion of whole cultures or integrated societies has been questioned and new ideas about globalization, cultural flows, fragmentation and fluid signs have been touted as definitive blows to anthropologys traditional objects of study: local communities of some order (2002:27). Clifford also observed that ethnographic studies seeking to disassociate themselves from totalizing anthropology use multiple allegories (1986:103). Against this backdrop, there has been a shift from single to multiple case studies: study individuals both in the village and in the urban milieu to which they have migrated, from single to multiple case studies, calling for the need to always extend out beyond the locale of natives and capture the voices of those away from home since migration may presuppose a change or modification of values and lifestyle. Multiple case study designs have been variously justified: Ethnographic data from multiple-case studies is often considered more persuasive and thus making the overall study more robust (Yin, 1994:141). A multiple case study exposes regularities through the simultaneous inspection of numerous cases (Eckstein, 2000:137). All other things being equal, a finding emerging repeatedly in the study of numerous sites (a multi-site study) would seem to be more likely to be a good working hypothesis about some yet unstudied site than a finding emerging from just one or two sites (Schofield, 2000:79). Such a study is capable of going beneath the political binaries (Burawoy,1998:6) of researcher and subject, local, national and international contexts so as to uncover multiple processes, interests and identities since the postcolonial context provides fertile ground for re-condensing these proliferating differences around local, national, and global links in view of the fact that various actors and stakeholders are multiply drawn into alliances at all levels (Buroway,1998:11). Like any other theoretical perspective, functionalism has received its own share of criticisms. Among these is the fact that the presence of an institution cannot precede its existence usefully suggesting that functionalist explanations carry a hardened notion of culture which is obviously not the case because historical processes are always at work. It is further assumed not to be concerned with social processes and to negate cross-cultural comparison because it sees every institution insitu. As one of the earliest anthropological theories, its forerunners suffered from lack of historical data in so-called primitive societies which might have greatly inhibited the quality of the data they obtained and therefore the type of analysis and theory they eventually came to construct. Secondly, proto-anthropology was begun by non-professionals: missionaries, travelers, and colonial administrators who wrote mostly to exoticize the communities they had come in contact with and to entertain people. First hour anthropologists were therefore partly preoccupied with making sense of these societies from the standpoint of the natives through participant observation. They were further preoccupied with particular questions, particular institutions, how societies that were presumed to have no histories and other institutions were capable of meeting particular cultural needs. Generally, they adopted an encyclopedic tradition, trying unlike today to study and grasp the functional relevance an d interrelationships of every institution to the other within a given culture. E.E. Evans-Pritchards (1940) classic study of the Nuer for instance, shows how an understanding of social structure is important to grasping the overall functioning of Nuer acephalous society. He does this using his concepts of fussion and fission, segmentation and combination with segments of the same order. By so doing, he demonstrates that in politics there are no permanent enemies. Malinowskis study of the Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea and the ceremonial annual kula Ring exchange shows its association with magic, religion, kinship and trade. In the same light, in Argonautes of the Western Pacific (1922), he paints a total picture of the peoples life through participant observation detailing among others, their technology, sexual life, everyday life and conflict resolution. One way of going beyond the limitations of these studies would have been to see these societies in historical context, as dynamic over time since the overall vision of the functionalist was not to negate history but rather, only to explain the present. Such a view will reconceptualize culture, not as based on consensus but rather as renegotiated by stakeholders in the light of changing circumstances. They dealt with circumscribed field sites and therefore did not go beyond local or how extra-local forces affected individuals in the societies that they studied. It is true from the history of sociological theory that every theoretical perspective has its shortcomings, calling for the need for complementarity. This is even more accentuated because social phenomena are multifaceted- different causal factors might explain the existence of a particular phenomenon. For instance, the classic example of Durkheims suicide based on observation may not be tenable today because of changes in soci al structures. Theories are rooted in particular historical epochs. Time changes and certain explanations become untenable, calling for more research and the need to reformulate old theories or discard them totally. This further demonstrates the spatio-temporal relativity of truth. There are of course, no universal truths despite the existence of cultural universals. Functionalist theories emerged as a response to the crisis of social order, seemingly the outcome of two developments. The first was industrial society with its loss of community, poor working conditions and increase in crime. The second was the French revolution with its ideals of equality, happiness and freedom of the individual. These two events were influential in the development of the consensus theory, although this theory fails to address conflict. Often times, some studies are replicated using different theoretical assumptions over time demonstrating that no theory is capable of explaining every aspect of human society. This explains why some anthropologists return to their field sites several years later so as to map the various changes that have taken place after their fieldwork. The dilemma with grand theories such as functionalism is their claim of attempting to explain every known phenomenon in the universe. The Durkheimian theory on suicide for example, seems to present a unilineal view of culture- some social groups and people with a protestant religious ethos are more prone to commit suicide than others. But even within a group, the groups values are constantly being contested and each group in reality might have multiple identities. Culture is actually a constant field of contest, negotiation and constant renegotiation. In summary, functionalism was geared towards investigating particular phenomenon using particular theoretical assumptions and methodological approaches. The authors were preoccupied with particular questions which largely determined their theoretical assumptions and above all, these theories were imbricated in particular historical moments and with changing times, some of their assumptions have been shown to be faulty.